View source for History of women's ice hockey in the United States

The '''history of women's ice hockey in the [[United States]]''' can be traced back to as early as the late nineteenth century, although more serious, structured teams were not formed until the late 1910s.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Holman |first=Andrew C. |date=2005 |title=Stops and Starts: Ideology, Commercialism, and the Fall of American Women's Hockey in the 1920s |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43625167 |journal=Journal of Sport History |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=328–350 |issn=0094-1700}}</ref> 

== Early History ==

=== The Era of "First Starts" (Pre-1916) ===
Dr. Andrew Holman, professor of history at Bridgewater State University, has described the period of women's hockey in the United States prior to 1916 as "the era of 'first starts'".<ref name=":0" /> Given the dates many hockey teams were established in the United States (see "Structured Hockey Begins" below), in this article, the time has been amended to pre-1916. There is evidence of women playing hockey as early as the 1890s,<ref name=":0" /> for instance: 

* 1896 - Students at Mount Holyoke College, an all women's school, are photographed skating with ice hockey sticks<ref name=":0" />  in the newly erected John D. Rockefeller Skating Rink.''<ref name=":0" />''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Campus Ice Skating Once Offered Winter Respite – Alumnae Association |url=https://alumnae.mtholyoke.edu/blog/campus-ice-skating-once-offered-winter-respite/ |access-date=2026-03-12 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Women’s Hockey Begins – College Hockey History |url=https://collegehockeyhistory.com/womens-hockey-begins/ |access-date=2026-03-12 |language=en-US}}</ref> 
* 1899 - A women's ice hockey match between Ottawa and Philadelphia is reported on in the ''Ottawa Citizen.<ref name=":0" />''<ref name=":1" />
* 1907 - A photograph displays the Hens, a women's ice hockey team formed in Hannah, North Dakota,<nowiki/>who played against men's teams.<ref name=":0" /> 
* 1909 - The Star Tribune reports that the Minnesota Amazons, a team made up of women from [[Macalester College]] in St. Paul and elsewhere, planned to play women and men's teams.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last=Kennedy |first=Ian |date=2025-12-06 |title=Minnesota Women's Hockey History: The State Of Hockey In The State Of Hockey More Than A Century Ago |url=https://thehockeynews.com/womens/other-news/minnesota-women-s-hockey-history-the-state-of-hockey-in-the-state-of-hockey-more-than-a-century-ago |access-date=2026-03-14 |website=The Hockey News |language=en}}</ref> 

=== Structured Hockey Begins (1916 - 1922) ===
Women's hockey became more structured and organized during and in the years after World War I.<ref name=":0" /> Cities with confirmed women's teams included [[Boston]], [[New York City|New York]], [[Pittsburgh]], [[Philadelphia]], [[San Francisco]], and [[Seattle]]. There is also evidence that Cleveland, Syracuse, and Maine may have had women's teams.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" /> The table below shows a list of women's hockey teams between 1916 and 1922. This list is likely non-exhaustive, as many teams did not have formal names or were not written about in newspapers.  

Consistent with other early 20th century hockey, teams generally had seven players on the ice: a goaltender, two on defense, three forwards, and one rover.  
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+List of Women's Hockey Teams 1916-1922
!Team
!City
!Years Active (Approx.) 
!Home Rink
|-
|Polar Maids<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |date=2025-04-11 |title=Women’s Hockey History: In The Early 1900-1920 |url=https://dubhockey.com/womens-hockey-history/womens-hockey-history-in-the-early-1900-1920 |access-date=2026-03-14 |website=Dub Hockey {{!}} Women's Hockey News |language=en-CA}}</ref>
|Pittsburgh, PA
|1916–1917
|Duquesne Garden Ice Palace
|-
|Arctic Girls<ref name=":4" />
|Pittsburgh, PA
|1916–1917
|Duquesne Garden Ice Palace
|-
|Winter Garden Girls<ref name=":4" />
|Pittsburgh, PA
|1916–1917
|Winter Garden Rink
|-
|St. Nicholas Blues<ref name=":5">{{Cite news |date=1916-11-16 |title=GIRLS IN HOCKEY BATTLE.; Endure Bumps Bravely in Game That Ends with Score Tied. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1916/11/16/archives/girls-in-hockey-battle-endure-bumps-bravely-in-game-that-ends-with.html |access-date=2026-03-14 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
|Brooklyn, NY
|1916–1921
|[[St. Nicholas Rink]]
|-
|Boston Girls' Hockey Club
|Boston, MA
|1916–1917
|[[Matthews Arena|Boston Arena]]
|-
|Minerva Hockey Club<ref name=":4" />
|Oakland, CA
|1916
|Techau Tavern Ice Palace
|-
|Diana Club<ref name=":4" />
|San Francisco, CA
|Circa 1916
|Techau Tavern Ice Palace
|-
|Princess Pats<ref name=":4" />
|San Francisco, CA
|1917–1918
|Techau Tavern Ice Palace
|-
|Wanderers<ref name=":4" />
|San Francisco, CA
|1917–1918
|Techau Tavern Ice Palace
|-
|Seattle Hockeyettes<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=Seattle Girls' & Women's Hockey History |url=https://www.womensprohockeyseattle.com/seattle-hockey-history |access-date=2026-03-14 |website=WoProHoSeattle |language=en}}</ref>
|Seattle, WA
|1917
|[[Seattle Ice Arena]]
|-
|Seattle Metettes<ref name=":6" />
|Seattle, WA
|1917
|[[Seattle Ice Arena]]
|-
|Glacier Girls<ref name=":6" />
|Seattle, WA
|1917
|[[Seattle Ice Arena]]
|-
|Manhattan Reds<ref name=":5" />
|New York, NY
|1916–1917
|[[St. Nicholas Rink]]
|-
|Seattle Vamps<ref name=":6" />
|Seattle, WA
|1920–1921
|
|-
|Sticks (later referred to as "Debs" short for Debutantes)<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |last=Kennedy |first=Ian |date=2024-11-19 |title='Sticks' and 'Clubs' Were The First St. Louis Women's Hockey Team In 1920 |url=https://thehockeynews.com/womens/other-news/sticks-and-clubs-were-the-first-st-louis-womens-hockey-team-in-1920 |access-date=2026-03-14 |website=The Hockey News |language=en}}</ref>
|St. Louis, MO
|1920–1921
|St. Louis Winter Garden
St. Louis Ice Palace
|-
|Clubs (later referred to as "Debs" short for Debutantes)<ref name=":7" />
|St. Louis, MO
|1920–1921
|St. Louis Winter Garden
St. Louis Ice Palace
|-
|Washington University Inter-Sorority Team<ref name=":7" />
|St. Louis, MO
|1921
|
|-
|University of Washington Women's Team<ref name=":6" />
|Seattle, WA
|1920–1921
|
|-
|Back Bay Hockey Club<ref name=":0" />
|Boston, MA
|1920–1921
|[[Matthews Arena|Boston Arena]]
|-
|Girls' A.A.<ref name=":0" />
|Boston, MA
|1921
|
|-
|Thorns<ref name=":0" />
|Philadelphia, PA
|1920–1921
|[[Philadelphia Ice Palace and Auditorium|Philadelphia Ice Palace]]
|-
|Roses<ref name=":0" />
|Philadelphia, PA
|1920–1921
|[[Philadelphia Ice Palace and Auditorium|Philadelphia Ice Palace]]
|-
|Philadelphia Cricket Club<ref name=":0" />
|Philadelphia, PA
|1920–1921
|
|-
|Merion Cricket Club<ref name=":0" />
|Philadelphia, PA
|1920–1921
|
|-
|Quaker City Maids (Philadelphia all-star team)<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kennedy |first=Ian |date=2024-08-15 |title=Sharpless And The Quaker City Maids |url=https://thehockeynews.com/womens/other-news/sharpless-and-the-quaker-city-maids |access-date=2026-03-14 |website=The Hockey News |language=en}}</ref> 
|Philadelphia, PA
|1920–1921
|[[Philadelphia Ice Palace and Auditorium|Philadelphia Ice Palace]]
|-
|University of Minnesota<ref name=":3" /> 
''Freshman v. Sophomore v. Junior v. Senior (1917–1930)''
|Minneapolis, MN
|1917–1930 
|Outdoor rink behind the [[University of Minnesota Armory|Armory]] (1917–1920)
[[Northrop Field]] rink (1921–1930)
|-
|Carleton College<ref name=":3" />
''"Maize" v. "Blue"''
|Northfield, MN
|1921–1922
|Lyman Lakes
|}

===== Overview of Select Early Teams by City =====

====== <u>Boston</u> ======
Tryouts for the Boston Girls' Hockey Team were held in late 1916, with try-out advertisements reaching as far as Cleveland.<ref name=":0" />  According to the Boston Globe, the first practice and first round of tryouts, were held at the Boston Arena on Friday, December 30, 1916, with fourteen women in attendance: Ruth Denesha, Gertrude Hawkes, Agnes Seamans, Lina Bowen, Agnes Seamans, Mary Campbell, Katherine McDougall, Mildred Copley, Helen Sheehan, Betty Hawkes, Marjorie Olsen, Esther Carr, Elsie Butler, Lena Doucette, and Frances Goldberg.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |date=Dec 30, 1916 |title=FOURTEEN LASSIES GET THEIR FIRST TEST FOR PLACES ON BOSTON GIRLS' HOCKEY TEAM |url=https://search.proquest.com/newspapers/fourteen-lassies-get-their-first-test-places-on/docview/503074706/se-2?accountid=11311 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://search.proquest.com/newspapers/fourteen-lassies-get-their-first-test-places-on/docview/503074706/se-2?accountid=11311 |archive-date=2010-07-07 |access-date=2026-03-12 |work=The Boston Globe |pages=5}}</ref> The same article noted that Ruth Denesha and Gertrude Hawkes were responsible for forming the team. Denesha's brother, Harry, served as a volunteer coach, and a Miss. Mary Hawkes—a relative of Gertrude Hawkes—agreed to chaperone the women for out of town games and serve as manager.<ref name=":2" /> While the game schedule was not set at the time of tryouts, women's hockey clubs in New York, Syracuse, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Maine, and Canada were noted as potential competitors.<ref name=":2" /> Ruth Denesha captained the team, with her brother, Harry—a hockey player for the [[New York Athletic Club]]—coaching. 

The Boston Girls' Hockey Team dissolved by the end of 1918, likely due to a fire that destroyed the original [[Boston Arena]] in December 1918.''<ref name=":0" />'' When the arena re-opened in early 2021, the team reformed, now branded as the "Back Bay Hockey Club."<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":8">{{Cite news |date=26 Dec 1920 |title=BOSTON TO HAVE ROSY-CHEEKED, STURDY GIRL'S HOCKEY TEAM |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/504066820/4543DC7EA9D549FEPQ/1?accountid=11311&sourcetype=Newspapers |archive-date=2010-07-07 |access-date=14-Mar-2026 |work=Boston Daily Globe |pages=18}}</ref>  In a December 1920 article, the Boston Daily Globe stated the team was to be led by Dorothea M. O'Donoghue, a goaltender who "weighs only 115 pounds and is only 5 feel 2 inches tall. She has grit, however, and the muscle, for she says she is as strong as many men who weighs twice as much as she."<ref name=":8" /> The article additionally stated that many of the original Boston Girls' Hockey Team players would return, including Gertrude Hawkes (now as player and manager), Agnes Seamens, Mary Campbell, Helen Sheehan, and Dorothea O'Donoghue.<ref name=":8" /> The new coach was to be a "Coach Myers, now with Boston University."<ref name=":8" /> Concurrently, an attempt was also being made in Boston to form women hockey teams at [[Boston University]], the Posse Normal School of Gymnastics in Boston, and the Sargent Gymnasium in Cambridge.<ref name=":8" />  Later in 1921, a second women's team in Boston, Girls A. A., was formed.<ref name=":0" /> 

Notable players of this era in Boston included: 

* Ruth Denesha - Co-founder and captain of the Boston Girls' Hockey Team.<ref name=":2" /> 
* Gertrude Hawkes - Co-founder of the Boston Girls' Hockey Team.<ref name=":2" /> Later manager of the Back Bay Hockey Club.<ref name=":8" /> 
* Agnes Seamans - From Somerville, MA. Also accomplished runner and holder of the mil women's championship of New England.<ref name=":2" /> Player on Boston Girl's Hockey Team and Back Bay Hockey Club.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":8" />
* Helen Sheehan - From Natick, MA. Also played basketball at Boston University.<ref name=":2" /> Player on Boston Girl's Hockey Team and Back Bay Hockey Club.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":8" />
* Mildred Conley - Wife of Farrell "Pop" Conley, a male hockey player on the Arena Hockey Club of Boston.<ref name=":2" />
* Lina Bowen - From Belmont, MA.<ref name=":2" /> 
* Dorothea O'Donoghue - Goaltender. Captain of the Back Bay Hockey Club.<ref name=":8" />
* Mary Campbell - Player on Boston Girl's Hockey Team and Back Bay Hockey Club.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":8" />
* Frances Goldburg
* Lena Doucette
* Katherine McDougal

====== <u>'''New York City'''</u> ======
The St. Nicholas Blues were initially organized by Kathleen Howard in 1916.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |last=Kennedy |first=Ian |date=2024-06-28 |title=More Than 125 Years Ago, Boston and New York First Faced Off In Women's Hockey |url=https://thehockeynews.com/womens/other-news/more-than-125-years-ago-boston-and-new-york-first-faced-off-in-womens-hockey |access-date=2026-03-17 |website=The Hockey News |language=en}}</ref> Howard initially moved to New York City from Winnipeg with her husband, Tom Howard, after he accepted a job coaching Yale and Columbia's hockey teams and playing for the New York Athletic Club. Tom Howard had previously won a Stanley Cub wit the Winnipeg Victorias.<ref name=":12" /> 

The earliest record of a structured game in New York City was in 1916, when the New York Times reported that the St. Nicholas Blues played the Manhattan Reds at [[St. Nicholas Rink]] on November 16.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":9">{{Cite news |date=16 Nov 1916 |title=Girls In Hockey Battle: Endure Bumps Bravely in Game That Ends with Scores Tied |url=https://search.proquest.com/newspapers/girls-hockey-battle/docview/97825757/se-2?accountid=11311 |archive-url=https://search.proquest.com/newspapers/girls-hockey-battle/docview/97825757/se-2?accountid=11311 |access-date=17 Mar 2026 |work=New York Times |pages=12 |via=ProQuest Historical Newspapers |issn=03624331}}</ref> The game tied 1:1, with Hallie Twombly scoring for the Blues, and Elsie Muller scoring for the Reds.<ref name=":9" /> 

Notable players of this era in New York City included:

*Elsie Muller - Played for the Manhattan Reds in the inaugural St. Nicholas Blues - Manhattan Reds game.<ref name=":9" /> Later, captain for the St. Nicholas Blues.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |last=Kennedy |first=Ian |date=2024-09-13 |title=Meet The Forgotten Women's Hockey Stars From The Early 1900s |url=https://thehockeynews.com/womens/other-news/meet-the-forgotten-womens-hockey-stars-from-the-early-1900s |access-date=2026-03-17 |website=The Hockey News |language=en}}</ref> Represented the United States in speedskating at the [[1932 Winter Olympics]].<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":11">{{Cite web |title=Elsie Muller McLave |url=https://www.usspeedskating.org/about/hall-of-fame-content/skaters/elsie-muller-mclave |access-date=2026-03-17 |website=www.usspeedskating.org |language=en}}</ref> She was inducted into the National Speedskating Hall of Fame on May 18, 1968.<ref name=":11" />
* Hallie Twombly - Described as "a miss who was able to out-skate and outskirmish most of the girls on the ice" in the inaugural St. Nicholas Blues - Manhattan Reds game.<ref name=":9" /> 

====== <u>Seattle</u> ======
As early as January 1916, [[Frank Patrick]] and [[Lester Patrick]] talked of the formation of a women's league to complement the [[Pacific Coast Hockey Association]].<ref>''Women on Ice: The Early Years of Women's Hockey in Western Canada'', Wayne Norton, p.115, Ronsdale Press, 2009, {{ISBN|978-1-55380-073-6}}</ref> The proposal included teams from Vancouver, Victoria, Portland and Seattle. The league never formed but in January 1917, the ''Vancouver News-Advertiser'' reported that wives of the [[Seattle Metropolitans]] had assembled a team. This team, known as the '''Seattle Hockeyettes''', participated in local tournament play.

{{Infobox hockey team
| team        = Seattle Vamps
| bg_color    = 
| text_color  = 
| logo        = 
| logo_size   = 100px
| city        = [[Seattle, Washington]]
| league      = [[Pacific Coast Hockey Association|International Ladies' Hockey League]]
| owner       = 
| operated    = 1920–1921
| arena       = [[Seattle Ice Arena]]
}}
The '''Seattle Vamps''', also occasionally referred to as the '''Seattle Sweeties''', were a women's ice hockey team based in Seattle that competed in the 1921 [[Pacific Coast Hockey Association|International Ladies' Hockey League]] season, the world's first women's tournament of the sport to include entrants from multiple nations.<ref>{{Cite web |title=IIHF - Women made history 100 years ago |url=https://www.iihf.com/en/news/24545/women_made_history_100_years_ago |access-date=2026-01-20 |website=IIHF International Ice Hockey Federation |language=en}}</ref>

In February 1921, [[Frank Patrick]] announced a women's international championship series that would be played in conjunction with the [[Pacific Coast Hockey Association]].<ref>''Women on Ice: The Early Years of Women's Hockey in Western Canada'', Wayne Norton, p.115, Ronsdale Press, 2009, {{ISBN|978-1-55380-073-6}}</ref> The three teams that competed were the [[Vancouver Amazons]], Victoria Kewpies, and Seattle Vamps. On February 21, 1921, the Seattle Vamps competed against the Vancouver Amazons in Vancouver, and were vanquished by a 5–0 score. Two days later, the Vamps played against a team from the University of British Columbia and won the game. Jerry Reed scored three goals (a hat trick) in the game for the Vamps. In both games, the Vancouver media referred to the Seattle team as the Seattle Sweeties.<ref name="autogenerated119">''Women on Ice: The Early Years of Women's Hockey in Western Canada'', Wayne Norton, p.119, Ronsdale Press, 2009, {{ISBN|978-1-55380-073-6}}</ref> The Amazons traveled to Seattle and defeated them again. On March 2, 1921, the Vamps were defeated by the Kewpies 1–0 in Seattle. In the rematch on March 12, the Vamps travelled to Victoria. The result was a 1–1 tie, and Jerry Reed scored the goal for Seattle. The goaltender for the Vamps was Mildren Terran.<ref name="autogenerated119" /> After the 1921 season, the Vamps and the Kewpies ceased operations.


=== The Quiet Decades (1922 - 1963) ===
Hockey and other women's sports declined in the 1920s and for the next several decades for a multitude of reasons, including the belief that sports made women "competitive, masculine, and unbecoming"<ref name=":0" /> and the belief that women's sports would never be profitable.<ref name=":0" /> These reasons may have been further compounded by the Great Depression and World War II, which led to rink closures and reduced programming. 

In 1923, the National Amateur Athletic Federation (NAAF) was created to coordinate and regulate amateur sports in the United States. While the federation's Women's Division did promote women playing sports, it urged that they must "play for play's sake," meaning women should not play competitively.<ref name=":0" /> Consequently, there was a decrease in women's collegiate and club sports, including hockey.

== Collegiate Hockey ==

=== 1960s: The Pembroke Pandas ===
In 1964, Nancy Schieffelin—who grew up playing hockey in her home state of New Jersey—began her freshman year at Pembroke College, the women's college in Brown University.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |last=Byrne |first=Mary |date=2025-06-27 |title=‘I Wanted to Play:’ Meet the ‘Founding Mother’ of U.S. Women’s Collegiate Hockey |url=https://belmontvoice.org/i-wanted-to-play-meet-the-founding-mother-of-us-womens-collegiate-hockey/ |access-date=2026-03-21 |website=The Belmont Voice |language=en-US}}</ref> After the [[Brown Bears men's ice hockey|Brown Bears]] men's coach, Jim Fullerton, saw her skating at the school's new rink, he arranged for Schieffelin to attend a team practiced disguised as a man.<ref>{{Cite web |title=1964: First Women's College Ice Hockey Team |url=https://250.brown.edu/timeline/495 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://250.brown.edu/timeline/495 |access-date=20 Mar 2026 |website=Imagine Brown 250+: Timeline}}</ref> <ref name=":13" />In an interview with Mary Byrne of The Belmont Voice in 2025, Schieffelin recalled:<ref name=":13" /><blockquote>The coach of the men's team saw me fooling around by myself with a stick and a puck...and he asked if I would come to practice for the men's team...The men's team was doing really poorly, and he wanted to get something fired up in them.<ref name=":13" /></blockquote>After the practice, Schieffelin approached Arlene Gorton, Pembroke's Director of Physical Education who was tasked with running all women's club-varsity teams, about starting a women's hockey team. Gorton agreed to support the creation of the team and became the driving force for its establishment.<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal |last=Berlage |first=Gai Ingham |date=March 1996 |title=The Development of Intercollegiate Women's Ice Hockey in the United States |url=https://digitalcommons.colby.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?httpsredir=1&article=3103&context=cq |journal=Colby Quarterly |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=58–71 |via=Digital Commons Colby}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Title IX Pioneer Arlene Gorton ’52 Memorial Service Postponed |url=https://www.browndailyherald.com/article/2020/03/title-ix-pioneer-arlene-gorton-52-memorial-service-postponed |access-date=2026-03-21 |website=The Brown Daily Herald |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":15">{{Cite web |title=Fighting the Good Fight |url=https://www.brownalumnimagazine.com/articles/2020-04-11/fighting-the-good-fight |access-date=2026-03-21 |website=www.brownalumnimagazine.com |language=en}}</ref> 

The team, originally named the Pembroke Pandas, is recognized as the first varsity women's college hockey program in America<ref name=":16">{{Cite web |last=Kennedy |first=Ian |date=2024-08-07 |title=Pembroke Pandas: America's First Collegiate Women's Hockey Team |url=https://thehockeynews.com/womens/other-news/pembroke-pandas-americas-first-collegiate-womens-hockey-team |access-date=2026-03-21 |website=The Hockey News |language=en}}</ref> (although non-varsity collegiate teams briefly existed at the University of Washington, Washington University in St. Louis, the University of Minnesota, and Carleton College in the 1920s<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7" />). The team had a scant budget—players initially wore hand-me-down Peewee jerseys and helmets and field hockey shin pads over field hockey pants or blue jeans.<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":15" /><ref name=":16" /> As there were no other collegiate programs, the Pandas played pick-up games against faculty and spouses and a Rhode Island men's club in their first season.<ref name=":14" /> In the next few years, they played against the Walpole Brooms, a women's community team in Massachusetts.<ref name=":14" /> In the late 1960s, the team travelled to Canada to play Canadian collegiate women's teams,<ref name=":14" /> selling chocolate bars to charter buses to these away games.<ref name=":16" /> 

=== 1970s: Collegiate Hockey Spreads ===

==== Cornell Big Red ====
In 1971, [[Cornell University|Cornell]] freshman Reggie Baker recruited 23 women for an ice hockey team. Baker, who grew up close to campus and whose father was a professor at the school, had been planning to start the team for years prior to matriculation. In eighth grade, Baker approached her science teacher, Gail Murphy, about coaching the team. Baker also distributed fliers around campus about the team during her senior year of high school.<ref name=":17">{{Cite web |date=2026-03-06 |title=Cornell Women's Ice Hockey 50th Anniversary: The Origin |url=https://cornellbigred.com/news/2023/7/21/cornell-womens-ice-hockey-50th-anniversary-special-the-origin-story.aspx |access-date=2026-03-21 |website=Cornell University Athletics |language=en}}</ref> 

While the club team was officially formed in 1971, the athletics office denied them ice time as they were not an official varsity sport. Consequently, the first season was spent doing off-ice conditioning at Schoellkopf Field. Baker continued to push the athletics department for ice time, and with the help of her father got the team recognized as a varsity sport for the 1972–1973 season.<ref name=":17" />  

==== Providence Friars ====
Only a two years after admitting in women in 1971, a women's intramural ice hockey program formed at Providence College for the 1973–1974 season.<ref name=":14" /> As the school was preparing to move more women's sports to varsity status to comply with Title IX, a survey was distributed to female students to determine which sports women were most interested in; ice hockey ranked in the top five most popular sports for women at Providence.<ref name=":14" />  Accordingly, women's hockey officially became a varsity sport at Providence for the 1974–1975 season,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-05-16 |title=Women’s Ice Hockey: 40 years and thriving |url=https://news.providence.edu/womens-ice-hockey-40-years-and-thriving/ |access-date=2026-03-21 |website=PC News |language=en-US}}</ref> making the Friars the third varsity collegiate team in the country.<ref name=":14" /> 

==== Colby Mules ====
Women's hockey started as a club sport at Colby in the 1973–1974 season.<ref name=":18">{{Cite news |last=Keyes |first=Bob |date=December 1, 2022 |title=Standing on the Shoulders of Legends: The Colby men's and women's hockey programs celebrate their 100th and 50th seasons |url=https://news.colby.edu/story/colby-hockey-standing-on-the-shoulders-of-legends/ |access-date=21 Mar 2026 |work=Colby News}}</ref> In February 1973, Colby held the first intercollegiate women's ice hockey game in the United States.<ref name=":18" />  The women's team made varsity status in 1975.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Women's Ice Hockey Program Overview |url=https://colbyathletics.com/sports/2020/6/2/womens-ice-hockey-program-overview |access-date=2026-03-21 |website=Colby College |language=en}}</ref>

==== Yale Bulldogs ====
In the 1974–1975 season, Yale women's ice hockey started as a club sport. Russ McCurdy, who was coaching the men's freshmen team at the time, helped coach the new women's team.<ref name=":19">Visser, Lesley (March 7, 1978). "They finish 15-0, but no place to go". ''Boston Globe''. pp. 32, 39 – via ProQuest Historical Newspapers: Boston Globe.</ref><ref>Text on ''Women's Hockey'' at Ingall's Ice Rink, New Haven, CT. Quote from Elly Dwyer McKenna '78 on the transition from club to varsity hockey: ''"Before we knew it, Yale had given us the JV boys' locker room (much to the JV's chagrin), uniforms, and a coach, Russ McCurdy."''</ref> The team became an official varsity sport in the 1977–1978 season.<ref name=":19" />

==== UNH Wildcats ====
The University of New Hampshire's women's ice hockey team started as a club around the same time as Yale's team, also gaining varsity status for the 1977–1978 season. Russ McCurdy left Yale to serve as the team's first head coach, and remained there for the next fifteen seasons. The UNH Wildcats went undefeated for their first four seasons, with an unbeaten streak of 74 games and a 57-game winning streak.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Women's Hockey Media Center: History Timeline |url=https://unhwildcats.com/sports/2017/6/6/womens-hockey-media-center-history |access-date=2026-03-21 |website=University of New Hampshire Athletics |language=en}}</ref> As of 2026, McCurdy has the highest winning percentage of any women's collegiate ice hockey coach.

==== Harvard Crimson ====
Women's ice hockey began in the 1977–1978 season, largely due to the efforts of students Lauren Norton, Tania Huber, and Nelia Worsley.<ref name=":20">{{Cite news |last=Ledecky |first=Jonathan J. |date=November 19, 1977 |title=Women Sticking Around |url=https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1977/11/19/women-sticking-around-pif-you-told/ |access-date=20 Mar 2026 |work=The Harvard Crimson}}</ref><ref name=":21">{{Cite news |last=Danoff |first=William A. |date=February 24, 1981 |title=Lauren Norton: Co-Captain Paces the Icewomen From the Point |url=https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1981/2/24/lauren-norton-pbetween-semesters-most-harvard/ |access-date=20 Mar 2026 |work=The Harvard Crimson}}</ref> Huber and Norton had started a women's team while high schoolers at Concord Academy, and with the help of Worsley, approached then men's coach Bill Cleary for advice on starting a women's team at Harvard.<ref name=":20" /> Cleary suggested that Joe Bertagna, former Harvard goalie, coach.<ref name=":20" />  

The team gained varsity status for the 1978–1979 season.<ref name=":21" /> 

==== Other Teams ====
Dartmouth Big Green (inaugural varsity season 1978–1979, club team prior),<ref>{{Cite web |title=Timeline – Women in Green |url=https://journeys.dartmouth.edu/50yearsofwomensathletics/timeline/ |access-date=2026-03-21 |website=journeys.dartmouth.edu}}</ref> Princeton Tigers (inaugural varsity season 1979–1980),<ref>{{Cite web |title=Women's Hockey Year-by-Year |url=https://goprincetontigers.com/sports/2016/6/27/womens-hockey-year-by-year |access-date=2026-03-21 |website=Princeton University Athletics |language=en}}</ref> Wesleyan Cardinals (inaugural varsity season 1977–1978),<ref>{{Cite web |title=Women's Ice Hockey All-Time Records |url=https://athletics.wesleyan.edu/alltime.aspx?path=whockey&record_type=seasons |access-date=2026-03-21 |website=Wesleyan University |language=en}}</ref> and Rochester Institute of Technology (RIT) Tigers (inaugural varsity season 1975–1976)<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.uscho.com/stats/history/rit/womens-hockey/2024-2025 |access-date=2026-03-21 |website=www.uscho.com}}</ref> also gained varsity status in the 70s. Both schools had club teams prior to varsity. 

Other schools with club teams in the 1970s included: Middlebury College Panthers (club team 1975, varsity 1981)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Middlebury Women’s Ice Hockey Celebrates 50 Years |url=https://athletics.middlebury.edu/news/2025/10/15/womens-ice-hockey-middlebury-womens-ice-hockey-celebrates-50-years.aspx |access-date=2026-03-21 |website=Middlebury College |language=en}}</ref>, Northeastern University Huskies (played in first women's Beanpot in 1979,<ref name=":22">{{Cite web |title=Women's Beanpot - All-Time Results |url=https://womensbeanpot.com/results.php |access-date=2026-03-21 |website=womensbeanpot.com}}</ref> varsity 1980<ref>{{Cite web |title=Women's Hockey - 1980-81 Season Statistics |url=https://nuhuskies.com/sports/2016/5/5/womens-hockey-1980-81-season-statistics |access-date=2026-03-21 |website=Northeastern University Athletics |language=en}}</ref>), Boston College Eagles (played in first women's Beanpot in 1979<ref name=":22" />), Boston University Terriers (played in first women's Beanpot in 1979<ref name=":22" />), Williams College Ephs (club 1973, varsity 1990s),<ref>{{Cite web |title=Williams College - Roster, News, Stats & more |url=https://www.eliteprospects.com/team/20863/williams-college |access-date=2026-03-21 |website=www.eliteprospects.com}}</ref> Colgate Raiders (club team 1973),<ref>{{Cite web |last=anspringer |date=2022-11-16 |title=Celebrating 50 Years of Women’s Athletics {{!}} Colgate Magazine |url=https://news.colgate.edu/magazine/2022/11/16/celebrating-50-years-of-womens-athletics/ |access-date=2026-03-21 |language=en-US}}</ref> and the RPI Engineers (club team 1977).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Years of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Firsts |url=https://rpi-staging.netlify.app/ |access-date=2026-03-21 |website=rpi-staging.netlify.app |language=en}}</ref>

==AWCHA==
In 1997–98, the American Women's College Hockey Alliance debuted. It was a program funded through the USOC/NCAA Conference Grant Program. The AWCHA organized and developed activities with collegiate women's varsity ice hockey teams, and helped to promote women's ice hockey at all NCAA levels. The first AWCHA Division I National Ice Hockey Championship was held in March 1998. The New Hampshire Wildcats defeated the Brown Bears by a 4–1 score, to become the first recognized national champion in women's college ice hockey. In the 1999–2000 season, the Western Collegiate Hockey Association (WCHA) joined the Eastern College Athletic Conference (ECAC) as the second league in the nation to offer women's Division I competition.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.hometeamsonline.com/teams/default.asp?u=GWC&s=hockey&p=custom&pagename=About+Girls+%26+Women%27s+Council |title= About Girl's & Women's Council|publisher= Alaska State Hockey|access-date=April 28, 2024}}</ref>

There were two more AWCHA National Championships and then the NCAA became involved. In August 2000, the NCAA announced it would hold its first Division I Women's Ice Hockey National Championship. The Minnesota Duluth Bulldogs captured the first NCAA Division I Women's Ice Hockey Championship, defeating the St. Lawrence Skating Saints by a 4–2 tally on March 25, 2001.

==NCAA==
===Notable games===
*February 28, 2010: The RPI Engineers women's ice hockey team made NCAA history. The Engineers beat Quinnipiac, 2–1, but it took five overtimes. It is now the longest college hockey game in NCAA history. Senior defenseman Laura Gersten had the game-winning goal. She registered it at 4:32 of the fifth overtime session to not only clinch the win, but the series victory.<ref>{{cite web|author=Amie Canfield |url=http://www.rpiathletics.com/news/2010/3/1/WICE_0301103857.aspx |title=RPI Engineers - Women's Hockey Headed to ECAC Hockey Semifinals |website=Rpiathletics.com |date=January 3, 2010 |access-date=October 3, 2016}}</ref> RPI advanced to the ECAC Hockey Women's Semifinals for the second consecutive season. The Engineers faced top ranked Cornell University.

===Outdoor games===
*On Friday, January 8, 2010, Boston's Fenway Park played host to a Hockey East doubleheader. In the first game, the New Hampshire Wildcats team faced off against the Northeastern Huskies team in an outdoor college hockey doubleheader in the first outdoor women's hockey game in the sport's history.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.uscho.com/news/college-hockey/id%2C17150/FenwayGamesSetDreamsBecomeReality.html |title=USCHO.com :: U.S. College Hockey Online :: Fenway Games Set; Dreams Become Reality |website=www.uscho.com |access-date=January 14, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090826161943/http://www.uscho.com/news/college-hockey/id%2C17150/FenwayGamesSetDreamsBecomeReality.html |archive-date=August 26, 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Northeastern surged to a 2–0 lead, but New Hampshire rallied to win 5–3. The latter game featured the men's teams from Boston College and Boston University, which BU won 3–2.
*February 6, 2010: The No. 9 ranked Wisconsin Badgers team (16–10–3, 13–9–1 WCHA) defeated the Bemidji State Beavers team (8–14–7, 7–9–7 WCHA), 6–1, in the first ever Culver's Camp Randall Hockey Classic at Camp Randall Stadium. The Badgers played in front of an NCAA-record crowd of 8,263 fans in the second-ever women's hockey outdoor showdown. Sophomore Carolyne Prevost scored the first goal in Camp Randall history at the 16:53 mark and backhanded it in to put the Badgers up 1–0. The Badgers dominated offensively, outshooting the Beavers 42–13. Freshman Becca Ruegsegger (Lakewood, Colorado) finished with 13 saves in net for Wisconsin.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.uwbadgers.com/sports/w-hockey/recaps/020610aaa.html |title=Women's Hockey - Wisconsin Athletics - Badgers freeze Beavers in 6-1 outdoor victory |website=Uwbadgers.com |date=February 6, 2010 |access-date=October 3, 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907183317/http://www.uwbadgers.com/sports/w-hockey/recaps/020610aaa.html |archive-date=September 7, 2015 }}</ref>

==Professional hockey==
===NWHL===
The [[National Women's Hockey League]] was formed in 2015 with four teams. Formed by Dani Rylan in March 2015<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.si.com/nhl/2016/03/04/nwhl-road-trip-behind-scenes-new-york-riveters|title=Behind the scenes on an NWHL road trip |website=SI.com |access-date=May 25, 2018}}</ref> with an estimated $2.5&nbsp;million operating budget,<ref name="espn-leonoff-investor-2016">{{cite web | url =https://www.espn.com/espnw/sports/story/_/id/14745553/joel-leonoff-nwhl-mystery-investors | title =Father of Connecticut Whale Goalie Among NWHL's Mystery Investors | last =Borzi | first =Pat | date =February 9, 2016 | website =espnW | publisher =ESPN Inc. | access-date =March 13, 2016 | url-status =live | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20160313201455/http://espn.go.com/espnw/sports/article/14745553/joel-leonoff-nwhl-mystery-investors | archive-date =March 13, 2016 | df =mdy-all }}</ref> it was the first women's professional hockey league to pay its players.<ref name="nwhl_first_to_pay">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbssports.com/nhl/news/nwhl-first-paid-womens-pro-hockey-league-drops-puck-on-first-season/|title=NWHL, first paid women's pro hockey league, drops puck on first season|work=CBSSports.com|access-date=May 25, 2018|language=en}}</ref> Prior to the league's formation, the only choice for top level women's hockey in North America was the [[Canadian Women's Hockey League]] (CWHL), which at the time paid bonuses and incentives but not salaries.<ref>{{cite web |first=Martin |last=Cleary |url=http://www.canada.com/ottawacitizen/columnists/story.html?id=b649aca4-4560-49af-b3f0-525e14891b75 |title=Dreaming of a league of her own |work=[[Ottawa Citizen]] |date=September 30, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071023220923/http://www.canada.com/ottawacitizen/columnists/story.html?id=b649aca4-4560-49af-b3f0-525e14891b75 |archive-date=October 23, 2007}}</ref> The league's inaugural season ran on a salary cap of US $270,000 maximum per team and a $10,000 minimum per player.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.todaysslapshot.com/nwhl/nwhl-release-player-finances-raises-questions/ |title=NWHL Release of Player Finances Raises Questions |last1=Cimini |first1=Kaitlin |date=September 30, 2015 |website=Today's Slapshot |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151003025655/http://www.todaysslapshot.com/nwhl/nwhl-release-player-finances-raises-questions |archive-date=October 3, 2015 }}</ref> The players also earned 15% of profits from any NWHL jersey sold with their name on it.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.thehockeynews.com/news/article/nwhl-opens-shop-and-reveals-jerseys-portion-of-profit-goes-to-players |title=NWHL opens shop and reveals jerseys, portion of profit goes to players |last=Clinton |first=Jared |work=The Hockey News|access-date=May 25, 2018 |language=en-CA}}</ref> The league placed its four original teams in large hockey markets: the New York City area, Boston, Buffalo, and New England.<ref name="nwhl_first_to_pay"/> In 2018 the league expanded to five teams, absorbing the Minnesota Whitecaps. In April 2020, a Toronto NWHL franchise was officially announced as the league's sixth team and first original expansion team, becoming the first expansion team to join the league since the collapse of the CWHL in 2019. Teams competed for the Isobel Cup, named after Lady Isobel Gathorne-Hardy, the daughter of Frederick Stanley, 16th Earl of Derby, donor of the [[Stanley Cup]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Fink |first=James |date=April 16, 2015 |title=Buffalo Beauts to play at HarborCenter |url=http://www.bizjournals.com/buffalo/news/2015/04/16/buffalo-beauts-to-play-at-harborcenter.html |newspaper=Buffalo Business First |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150619215101/http://www.bizjournals.com/buffalo/news/2015/04/16/buffalo-beauts-to-play-at-harborcenter.html |archive-date=June 19, 2015 }}</ref>

===PWHPA===
The [[Professional Women's Hockey Players Association]] (PWHPA) was founded in May 2019 following the dissolution of the CWHL and player's dissatisfaction in the operations of the NWHL. Although the NWHL was the first women's ice hockey league to pay its players (the CWHL only paid players stipends), it was still not considered a livable wage. The goal of the PWHPA was to create a sustainable professional league for women's ice hockey in North America that provided financial and infrastructure resources to players, health insurance, and support to training programs for young female players.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Jay|first=Michelle|date=May 20, 2019|title=Professional Women's Hockey Player Association established, issues statement|url=https://www.theicegarden.com/2019/5/20/18632598/professional-womens-hockey-player-association-pwhpa-established-issues-statement-for-the-game|access-date=September 30, 2020|website=The Ice Garden|archive-date=October 10, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191010150956/https://www.theicegarden.com/2019/5/20/18632598/professional-womens-hockey-player-association-pwhpa-established-issues-statement-for-the-game|url-status=live}}</ref> With a large number of North American players boycotting the NWHL in support of the PWHPA, more than half of the signed players on opening rosters for the [[2019–20 NWHL season]] were new to the league.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Jay|first=Michelle|date=October 4, 2019|title=2019-20 NWHL Preview: Storylines to watch|url=https://www.theicegarden.com/2019/10/4/20891116/2019-20-nwhl-preview-storylines-to-watch-miles-arnone-boston-pride-womens-hockey|access-date=September 30, 2020|website=The Ice Garden|archive-date=October 8, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191008223409/https://www.theicegarden.com/2019/10/4/20891116/2019-20-nwhl-preview-storylines-to-watch-miles-arnone-boston-pride-womens-hockey|url-status=live}}</ref>

Due to their boycott, the members of the PWHPA decided to compete against one another on a tour to various North American cities, creating a series of exhibitions called the [[2019–20 PWHPA season|Dream Gap Tour]], named after the gap between professional men's and women's hockey opportunities.<ref>{{cite web |author=Brady |first=Rachel |date=September 20, 2019 |title=PWHPA: the Dream Gap Tour leading the way for women's hockey in North America |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/sports/article-pwhpa-the-dream-gap-tour-leading-the-way-for-womens-hockey-in-north/ |url-status=live |access-date=September 30, 2020 |website=The Globe and Mail|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190921143919/https://www.theglobeandmail.com/sports/article-pwhpa-the-dream-gap-tour-leading-the-way-for-womens-hockey-in-north/ |archive-date=September 21, 2019 }}</ref> Eventually, the COVID-19 pandemic caused public events to be cancelled, effectively ending the season. They continued the tour the following season, resulting in the [[2020–21 PWHPA season]].

In 2019 and 2020, select NWHL and PWHPA players were invited to participate in the 2019 NHL All-Star Skills Competition and the 2020 NHL All-Star Weekend. They participated in skill competitions and had a USA vs Canada women's three-on-three game in 2020. NWHL star Kendall Coyne Schofield competed in the fastest skater event in 2019 alongside big names in the NHL such as Connor McDavid, Mat Barzal, and Nathan MacKinnon. She finished 7th out of 8 skaters, only a second behind the top skater Connor McDavid. Also in 2019, Brianna Decker completed a demonstration for the "premier passer" event included in the All-Star games. Although she was not part of the competition, fans complained that she deserved the $25,000 prize because she had finished three seconds ahead of the first-place winner. 2019 was the first time women's ice hockey players had competed in the events, but no one received any prizes. Instead, they were given appearance fees and a donation of $1 million towards girls hockey. Their appearances in the games raised awareness for women in a male dominated sport and garnered recognition of the NWHL and PWHPA.

===PHF===
In September 2021, the NWHL officially rebranded as the [[Premier Hockey Federation]] (PHF) alongside several structural changes including prioritizing private ownership of teams.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nbcnewyork.com/news/sports/nwhl-rebrands-premier-hockey-federation-entering-7th-year/3258432/ |title=NWHL Rebrands to 'Premier Hockey Federation' to Promote Inclusivity, Inspire Youth |date=September 7, 2021 |first=John |last=Wawrow |work=WNBC |access-date=September 7, 2021 |archive-date=October 20, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020030139/https://www.nbcnewyork.com/news/sports/nwhl-rebrands-premier-hockey-federation-entering-7th-year/3258432/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Krotz |first=Paul |title=NWHL REBRANDS AS PREMIER HOCKEY FEDERATION |url=https://www.premierhockeyfederation.com/news/nwhl-rebrands-as-premier-hockey-federation |website=Premier Hockey Federation |date=September 7, 2021 |access-date=January 10, 2022 |url-status=live |archive-date=January 25, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220125025745/https://www.premierhockeyfederation.com/news/nwhl-rebrands-as-premier-hockey-federation }}</ref> Team salary caps were also doubled prior to the season, going from $150,000 per team to $300,000.<ref>{{Cite web |date=April 28, 2021 |title=NWHL to Double Salary Cap in Season Seven |url=https://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/nwhl-to-double-salary-cap-in-season-seven/n-5684979 |url-status=live |access-date=April 28, 2021 |website=OurSports Central |type=Press release |archive-date=April 28, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428152930/https://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/nwhl-to-double-salary-cap-in-season-seven/n-5684979 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=April 28, 2021 |title=NWHL doubles salary cap to $300K, delays Montreal expansion |url=https://www.tsn.ca/nwhl-doubles-salary-cap-to-300k-delays-montreal-expansion-1.1630990 |url-status=live |access-date=May 2, 2021 |website=The Sports Network |language=en-CA |archive-date=May 2, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210502150524/https://www.tsn.ca/nwhl-doubles-salary-cap-to-300k-delays-montreal-expansion-1.1630990 }}</ref> The 2021–22 season, the league's first season under the PHF title, began in November 2021.<ref>{{Cite news |last=McGran |first=Kevin |date=November 6, 2021 |title=The Premier Hockey Federation forges ahead, still hoping to unite women's professional hockey |language=en-CA |work=The Toronto Star |url=https://www.thestar.com/sports/hockey/2021/11/05/i-dont-think-its-good-for-the-sport-to-keep-this-narrative-going-on-of-trying-to-unite-weve-got-to-actually-unite-phf-commissioner-tumminia-says-were-here-for-it-the-players-have-the-platfo.html |access-date=January 6, 2022 |issn=0319-0781 |archive-date=January 6, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220106001628/https://www.thestar.com/sports/hockey/2021/11/05/i-dont-think-its-good-for-the-sport-to-keep-this-narrative-going-on-of-trying-to-unite-weve-got-to-actually-unite-phf-commissioner-tumminia-says-were-here-for-it-the-players-have-the-platfo.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Doherty |first=Matt |title=Women's professional hockey league hopes to raise its profile with rebranding as PHF and streaming deal with ESPN |url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/2021/11/05/sports/womens-professional-hockey-league-hopes-raise-its-profile-with-rebranding-phf-television-deal-with-espn/ |access-date=January 6, 2022 |website=BostonGlobe.com |language=en-US |archive-date=January 7, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220107035334/https://www.bostonglobe.com/2021/11/05/sports/womens-professional-hockey-league-hopes-raise-its-profile-with-rebranding-phf-television-deal-with-espn/ |url-status=live }}</ref> PHF players were required to follow testing and quarantine protocols due the outbreak of the COVID-19 Omicron variant.<ref>{{Cite web |date=December 30, 2021 |title=Women's hockey notebook: A year after bubble, PHF dealing with pandemic hockey again |url=https://www.seattletimes.com/sports/hockey/womens-hockey-notebook-a-year-after-bubble-phf-dealing-with-pandemic-hockey-again/ |access-date=January 6, 2022 |website=The Seattle Times |language=en-US |archive-date=January 6, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220106001629/https://www.seattletimes.com/sports/hockey/womens-hockey-notebook-a-year-after-bubble-phf-dealing-with-pandemic-hockey-again/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

On January 18, 2022, the league announced that the 2022–23 salary cap would more than double to $750,000 per team, and players would receive full healthcare benefits and an equity stake in the teams.<ref name="january-18-announcement-espn">{{cite web |url=https://www.espn.com/nhl/story/_/id/33091153/premier-hockey-federation-increase-salary-cap-add-franchises-boost-women-hockey |title=Premier Hockey Federation to more than double salary cap, add expansion franchises |date=January 18, 2022 |website=ESPN.com |access-date=January 18, 2022 |archive-date=January 18, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220118124927/https://www.espn.com/nhl/story/_/id/33091153/premier-hockey-federation-increase-salary-cap-add-franchises-boost-women-hockey |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="january-18-announcement-phf">{{cite web |url=https://www.premierhockeyfederation.com/news/phf-propelled-by-game-changing-25m-investment |title=PHF Propelled by Game-Changing $25M Investment |last=Krotz |first=Paul |date=January 18, 2022 |website=Premier Hockey federation |access-date=January 18, 2022 |quote=Largest one-time independent investment in women's professional hockey will expand the league, provide updated facilities, and give players greater salary and benefits |archive-date=January 18, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220118120300/https://www.premierhockeyfederation.com/news/phf-propelled-by-game-changing-25m-investment |url-status=live }}</ref> Additionally, the league confirmed plans to add an expansion team in Montreal, which resulted in the creation of a seventh team, the Montreal Force, in 2022. In December 2022, the salary cap for the 2023–24 PHF season was set at $1.5 million per team, double the 2022–23 cap of $750,000.<ref name="TheAthletic_Salvian_23/24-salary-cap">{{cite news |last1=Salvian |first1=Hailey |title=PHF doubling salary cap for 2023-24 season |url=https://www.nytimes.com/athletic/4000426/2022/12/14/premier-hockey-federation-salary-cap/ |access-date=December 14, 2022 |work=The Athletic |date=December 14, 2022 |language=en |archive-date=December 15, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221215000016/https://theathletic.com/4000426/2022/12/14/premier-hockey-federation-salary-cap/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The increase aligned with the Board of Governors' pledge, made in 2021, to invest $25 million directly in pay and benefits to PHF players over the ensuing three seasons. This signified a 900 percent growth over the 2021 salary cap.<ref name="PHF_23/24-salary-cap">{{cite web |last1=Forno |first1=Mario |title=PHF Salary Cap to Double for 2023–24 Season to Historic $1.5 Million |url=https://www.premierhockeyfederation.com/news/phf-salary-cap-to-double-for-2023-24-season |website=Premier Hockey Federation |access-date=December 14, 2022 |type=Press release |language=en-US |date=December 14, 2022 |archive-date=January 24, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230124113838/https://www.premierhockeyfederation.com/news/phf-salary-cap-to-double-for-2023-24-season |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="ESPN_23/24-salary-cap">{{cite web |url=https://www.espn.com/espn/story?id=35250577 |title=Premier Hockey Federation plans to double salary cap in 2023-24 |agency=Associated Press |date=December 14, 2022 |website=ESPN.com |publisher=ESPN |access-date=December 15, 2022 |archive-date=December 15, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221215232844/https://www.espn.com/espn/story?id=35250577 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===PWHL===
On June 30, 2023, the Premier Hockey Federation announced that the league had been sold to the Mark Walter Group.<ref name="phf-sale-espn">{{cite web |author=ESPN News Services |date=June 29, 2023 |title=Sources: Premier Hockey Federation sale could unite women's hockey |url=https://www.espn.com/nhl/story/_/id/37937093/premier-hockey-federation-sale-unite-women-hockey |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630015545/https://www.espn.com/nhl/story/_/id/37937093/premier-hockey-federation-sale-unite-women-hockey |archive-date=June 30, 2023 |access-date=June 30, 2023 |website=ESPN.com |publisher=ESPN}}</ref> This buyout voided all PHF player contracts for the upcoming season and PHF players were not allowed to be parties to negotiations toward a collective bargaining agreement between the PWHPA and the new league before its ratification.<ref name="sn-overview">{{cite news |url=https://www.sportsnet.ca/hockey/article/what-we-know-and-what-we-dont-about-the-pwhpa-phf-shakeup/ |title=What we know (and what we don't) about the PWHPA/PHF shakeup |date=June 30, 2023 |access-date=June 30, 2023 |work=Sportsnet |first=Emily |last=Sadler |archive-date=July 1, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230701042546/https://www.sportsnet.ca/hockey/article/what-we-know-and-what-we-dont-about-the-pwhpa-phf-shakeup/ |url-status=live }}</ref> PHF players were then required to renegotiate their contracts with the new league or participate in the new league's draft if they wanted to continue their professional hockey careers in North America. 

On August 29, 2023, it was announced that the new league would be known as the [[PWHL]] and that the six charter franchises would be based in [[Toronto Sceptres|Toronto]], [[Ottawa Charge|Ottawa]], [[Montreal Victoire|Montreal]], [[Boston Fleet|Boston]], [[New York Sirens|New York]], and [[Minnesota Frost|Minneapolis-St. Paul]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=August 29, 2023 |title=PWHL unveils locations of first six teams, player selection process |url=https://www.sportsnet.ca/women-hockey/article/pwhl-unveils-locations-of-first-six-teams-player-selection-process/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230830074635/https://www.sportsnet.ca/women-hockey/article/pwhl-unveils-locations-of-first-six-teams-player-selection-process/ |archive-date=August 30, 2023 |access-date=January 4, 2024 |work=Sportsnet |agency=Associated Press}}</ref> All six teams were allowed to sign three players during an initial 10-day free agency period.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Sadler |first=Emily |date=September 13, 2023 |title=Recapping where each PWHL team stands following first signings |url=https://www.sportsnet.ca/women-hockey/article/recapping-where-each-pwhl-team-stands-following-first-signings/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230914040201/https://www.sportsnet.ca/women-hockey/article/recapping-where-each-pwhl-team-stands-following-first-signings/ |archive-date=September 14, 2023 |access-date=September 19, 2023 |work=Sportsnet}}</ref> Following the free agency period, the 2023 PWHL Draft was held in Toronto on September 18. The 15-round draft saw 90 players selected from a pool of 286 eligible players. Since the new league would have one fewer team than the PHF and five fewer than the PHF and PWHPA combined, many players from both organizations were not drafted or signed during the PWHL's free-agency period. The PWHL's inaugural game was held on January 1, 2024, between New York and Toronto.

==Notable teams==
===Connecticut Polar Bears===
The Connecticut Polar Bears are an ice hockey league for girls under the age of 19 in Connecticut. Numerous players from the Polar Bears have gone on to careers in college hockey at the NCAA Division I and Division III levels. In 1985, Maurice FitzMaurice's daughter Marnie wanted the opportunity to play ice hockey among girls. FitzMaurice and a few other fathers decided to organize a Pee Wee Girls program. The result was the Connecticut Polar Bears. It is the only all-girls ice hockey program in Connecticut, which consists of eleven teams.

Since its beginnings, FitzMaurice has been the President of the Polar Bears. He was also one of the organizers of one of the largest Christmas tournaments in North America. In 2007, the tournament hosted about 275 teams. Games were played across Connecticut. The program has produced numerous Olympians, including Julie Chu, Jamie Hagerman, Hilary Knight, Sue Merz, A. J. Mleczko, Kim Insalaco, Angela Ruggiero, Sarah Vaillancourt, and Gretchen Ulion. 

*The Polar Bears have won 10 championships at the national level.
{| class="wikitable"  
|- 
! Year !! City  !! Results
|- 
|1986 ||Detroit, MI || Peewee team won in final over Assabet, MA 7–0 
|- 
|1990 ||Detroit, MI || Midget team won in  OT final against Assabet, MA 2–1 
|- 
|1991 ||Boston, MA || Midget team won in final against Michigan 3–2 
|- 
|1995 ||Syracuse, NY || Peewee team won in double OT final against Assabet, MA 2–1 
|- 
|1996 ||Bloomington, MN || Peewee team won in final against Assabet, MA 5–2 
|- 
|1997 ||Boston, MA || Peewee team won in final against Minnesota 5–2 
|- 
|1997 ||Boston, MA || Midget team won in final against Minnesota 3–1 
|- 
|1998  ||Anaheim, CA||Midget team won in final against Team California 3–0 
|- 
|1999 ||Minneapolis MN || Midget team won in final against Minnesota  2–1  
|- 
|2004 ||Rochester, NY|| Midget team won in final against Assabet 4–0 
|}

===Minnesota Whitecaps===

Minnesota first competed for the [[Clarkson Cup]] in 2009 in Kingston, Ontario. The team lost to the [[Montreal Stars]] in a one-game final, 3 goals to 1. In 2010, the [[Minnesota Whitecaps]] became the first United States based team to win the Clarkson Cup, doing so by defeating the [[Markham Thunder|Brampton Thunder]], 4 goals to none.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.thestar.com/sports/hockey/article/786856--whitecaps-swamp-thunder-to-win-clarkson-cup |title= Whitecaps swamp Thunder to win Clarkson Cup|author= Randy Starkman|date= March 29, 2010|publisher= Toronto Star|access-date=April 4, 2010}}</ref> In 2019, after moving to the [[National Women's Hockey League]], the Whitecaps became the only team to win both the Clarkson Cup and the [[Isobel Cup]] after beating the [[Buffalo Beauts]] by a score of 2 goals to one.

==Timeline of events==
*1971: The first known girls' youth hockey program in Minnesota is established by the Lake Region Hockey Association. The first game is played in Arden Hills, Minnesota on January 10.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/178894878 |title=Powder Puffs Not In Their Equipment |date=January 16, 1971 |publisher=Minneapolis Star  |access-date=November 10, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.stateofhockey.com/news_article/show/1152437 |title=Mounds View/Irondale Girls Program Celebrates 50 Years |date=March 15, 2021 |publisher=Let's Play Hockey |access-date=March 15, 2021}}</ref> 
*1980: The Amateur Hockey Association of the United States (known today as USA Hockey) hosts the first national championships for girls' pee wee and midget divisions. A team from Taylor, Michigan wins the inaugural pee wee tournament. A team from Wayzata, Minn., is the first girls' midget National Champion.
*1981: Senior women are included in USA Hockey's National Championships. Assabet Valley, Massachusetts, wins the Senior A National Championship, while Cape Cod, Massachusetts, wins the Senior B crown.
*1984: The Providence Friars women's hockey program wins the inaugural Eastern College Athletic Conference Women's Championship.
*1993: Women's hockey is included at the U.S. Olympic Festival for the first time ever. The festival is held in San Antonio, Texas and the US women's team defeats Canada in a two-game series for the gold medal.
*1994: The third IIHF Women's World Championship is held in the United States for the first time. The venue is Lake Placid, New York. Canada wins the gold medal game by a 6–3 mark against the U.S. Finland defeats China, 8–1, to finish third once again.
*1995: On March 25, Apple Valley High School defeats the South St. Paul Packers, 2–0, to become the first Minnesota girls' state high school champion.
*1995: The inaugural IIHF Pacific Rim Women's Hockey Championship, featuring the U.S., Canada, China and Japan, is held in San Jose, California. The Canadian team defeats the U.S. in an overtime shootout to win the gold medal.
*1998: The USA Women's Hockey Team wins the gold medal against the Canada in the first ever Olympic women's ice hockey tournament at the [[1998 Winter Olympics]] in Nagano, Japan. The USA women defeated Canada 3–1.
*2018: The USA Women's Hockey Team defeats Canada 3–2 in the shootout to win the gold medal at the [[2018 Winter Olympics]] in Pyeongchang, South Korea.

==Figures==
* Laura Stamm was a power skating instructor in the 1970s and 1980s for several NHL teams, including the New York Rangers, New Jersey Devils and Los Angeles Kings.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://laurastamm.com/LStammHistory011409.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110819205215/http://laurastamm.com/LStammHistory011409.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=August 19, 2011 |title=History and Legacy of the Laura Stamm International Power Skating System |access-date=June 15, 2011 }}</ref>
* Bella Hartman played for the University of New Hampshire Wildcats and was a member of the United States national team in the late 1980s and early 1990s.
* Erin Nohl played for the Providence Friars and was a member of several U.S. national teams in the early 1990s.
* On October 30, 1993, goaltender Erin Whitten made history by becoming the first woman to record a victory in a professional hockey game. As a member of the East Coast Hockey League's Toledo Storm, she posted a 6–5 win against the Dayton Bombers. In 1994 she received the first-ever USA Hockey Women's Hockey Player of the Year Award. On March 7, 1996, she became the first woman to appear in a professional hockey game in a position other than goaltender, when, as a member of the Colonial Hockey League's Flint Generals, she played at forward for 18 seconds in a game against the Madison Monsters.
* Lynn Olson is considered the godmother of girls' and women's hockey in Minnesota. She was part of the movement that led Minnesota to become the first state to recognize girls' hockey as a varsity sport, in 1994.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://history.vintagemnhockey.com/page/show/851488-minnesota-girls-womens-hockey|title= MN Women's Hockey}}</ref>
* Laura Halldorson was a coach for the University of Minnesota Golden Gophers, and played at Princeton with Patty Kazmaier. In addition, she played with Cindy Curley and Lauren Apollo on the earliest U.S. National teams. Five of the players she coached at Minnesota would later become Olympians themselves, including 2006 U.S. captain Krissy Wendell.
* The late Patty Kazmaier played for the Princeton Tigers. An award for the best player in women's college hockey is named in her honor.
*On September 13, 2011, Buffalo native Lexi Peters became the first female ice hockey player to appear in an EA Sports NHL Hockey video game,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://buffalosabresnation.com/2011/09/12/buffalo-girl-becomes-1st-female-player-in-ea-nhl-hockey/ |title=Buffalo Girl Convinces EA to put a Female Face on NHL Hockey |website=buffalosabresnation.com |access-date=January 14, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402111430/http://buffalosabresnation.com/2011/09/12/buffalo-girl-becomes-1st-female-player-in-ea-nhl-hockey/ |archive-date=April 2, 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> in ''EA Sports NHL 12''. In previous experiences with EA Sports' NHL titles, she spent hours with the custom team features in an attempt to recreate the Purple Eagles (an all-girls team Peters plays for). The various titles' player creation options did not include a female character build.<ref>{{cite web|last=Brough |first=Jason |url=http://prohockeytalk.nbcsports.com/2011/09/12/14-year-old-girl-finds-herself-in-nhl-12-after-asking-ea-sports-why-its-games-didnt-include-female-players/ |title=Teenage girl finds herself in NHL 12 after asking EA Sports why its games lacked female players – ProHockeyTalk |website=Prohockeytalk.nbcsports.com |date=September 12, 2011 |access-date=October 3, 2016}}</ref> Peters asked her father why there were no female characters in past video games. Her dad suggested that she write a letter to the company and inquire about it.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://aol.sportingnews.com/nhl/story/2011-09-11/first-female-character-to-appear-in-nhl-12-video-game |title=First female character to appear in NHL '12 video game &#124; NHL &#124; Sporting News |website=Aol.sportingnews.com |access-date=October 3, 2016 |archive-date=September 28, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120928222709/http://aol.sportingnews.com/nhl/story/2011-09-11/first-female-character-to-appear-in-nhl-12-video-game |url-status=dead }}</ref> David Littman, the lead producer of the EA Sports NHL game, received permission from the NHL and EA's lawyers to include Lexi Peters in their ''EA Sports NHL 12'' video game (released on September 13, 2011).<ref>{{cite web|last=Maller |first=Ben |url=http://www.thepostgame.com/blog/dish/201109/14-year-old-girl-appears-nhl-video-game |title=14-Year-Old Girl Appears In NHL Video Game |website=ThePostGame.com |date=December 9, 2011 |access-date=October 3, 2016}}</ref> EA Sports informed Lexi that they were going to have her as the game's "default" female player that gamers would be able to customize.

==Minnesota==
Minnesota has long been synonymous with ice hockey. Beyond its famous boy's high school, men’s programs and professional teams, the state has evolved into a powerhouse for women’s hockey as well. From the earliest days in 1918—when the first women’s club team took to the ice at the University of Minnesota—to today’s record-breaking professional leagues, Minnesota has remained at the forefront US women's ice hockey.

In 1994, more than 500 member schools were sent letters by the Minnesota State high school league. The intent was to determine how many schools were interested in starting girls' ice hockey teams. Twenty-four expressed interest as the league was looking for a new sport for Title IX purposes. On March 21, 1994, the Minnesota State High School League sanctioned girls' ice hockey. Minnesota became the first state in the U.S. to sanction girls' ice hockey as a high school varsity sport.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://usahockey.cachefly.net/Brochures/Girls-Women%2009_WEB.pdf|title= History of the Women's Game|publisher= USA Hockey|access-date=June 24, 2010}} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> On March 25, 1995, Apple Valley High School defeated the South St. Paul Packers, 2–0, to become the first Minnesota girls' state high school champion.

From 1994 to 2002, the number of varsity girls' teams in Minnesota expanded from 24 to 125 (in two classifications, AA and A). In 2001, a three-day girls' state tournament attracted 15,551 spectators.<ref name="autogenerated2002">{{cite news |url= http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1027662/index.htm|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120312061649/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1027662/index.htm|url-status= dead|archive-date= March 12, 2012|title= Hot Stuff|author=Albert Chen |date=December 2, 2002 |publisher= Sports Illustrated|access-date=June 24, 2010}}</ref> In 1994 there were 1,863 girls in the state participating in organized hockey outside of a varsity high school program. In 2002, the number increased to 6,856.<ref name="autogenerated2002"/>

===NCAA Division I Programs===
Minnesota’s high school traditions have been linked into collegiate hockey, where Division I programs are held.

As of the 2024–2025 season, there were 681 US-born NCAA Division I women hockey players. Minnesota led all states with 202 players followed by Massachusetts with 114 players and New York state in a distant third with 52 players. This number only represents the number of players who were born in the state. It does not include players who moved to Minnesota to play high school or prep hockey.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.uscho.com/2024/11/01/womens-di-college-hockey-2024-25-team-demographics/|title = Women’s Division I College Hockey: 2024-25 team demographics}}</ref>

The primary NCAA Division I women’s hockey programs in Minnesota include:
*Minnesota Golden Gophers women's ice hockey
*Minnesota Duluth Bulldogs women's ice hockey
*St. Cloud State Huskies women's ice hockey
*Minnesota State Mavericks women's ice hockey
*Bemidji State Beavers women's ice hockey
*St. Thomas Tommies women's ice hockey

=== Minnesota’s Professional Women’s Hockey League (PWHL) Pipeline ===
Minnesota has played a major role in producing Professional Women's Hockey League (PWHL) talent. Currently the league has 75 U.S.-born players with nearly half (37) having played either high school or prep / academy hockey in Minnesota. Twenty-three (23) players were born, raised, and played high school hockey in the Minneapolis–St. Paul metropolitan area, 3 players moved to the Twin Cities area and played high school hockey, and 11 current players moved to the state to play for Shattuck-Saint Mary's in Faribault, Minnesota.
<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.thepwhl.com/en/stats |title = PWHL Teams}}</ref>
<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.quanthockey.com/pwhl/en/us-state/ |title = Player Birth State Trends in the PWHL}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Wikipedia}}

[[Category:History]]